Transformative recognition of "work" by other species


Disparate Strategic Possibilities Dangerously Neglected (Part #2)

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It could be considered extraordinary that the work, so fundamental to the framing of "economic" transformation at this time, seemingly takes no account whatsoever of the work performed by animals and plants. Together with the processes of nature more generally, "work" is explicitly recognized by the fundamental science of thermodynamics. As stated decades ago by Warren P. Porter and David M. Gates: All processes of life, all physiological events, do work and expend energy (Thermodynamic Equilibria of Animals with Environment, Ecological Monographs, 39, 1969, 3).

Since that time an extensive literature on the relevance of thermodynamics to understanding of the environment and ecosystems has emerged. Curiously it is the particular application of theories of economics to remunerated work -- excluding any recognition of the work done by nature and nonhuman species -- which has resulted in massive degradation of the environment. That degradation is variously recognized as a fundamental challenge to sustainability.

Irrespective of such perceived degradation and threats to viability, an urgent requirement for radical transformation of global "economics" is variously presented (Transformational Economics Commission of the Club of Rome; Jeffrey D. Sachs, et al, Six Transformations to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals, Nature Sustainability, 2, 2019). Consistent with silo thinking of this kind, there is a fundamental irony to the fact that the International Labour Organization takes no account whatsover of the "labour" performed by nonhuman species or any recognition of the "workers" fundamental to such activity. Creative arguments for reframing understanding of work also tend to avoid this dimension (André Gorz, Reclaiming Work: Beyond the Wage-Based Society, Polity, 1999).

As might then be expected, the health of such non-human workers is in now way a concern of the "World Health Organization" -- being relegated to the mandate of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Concern for those workers by such institutions is however limited to whether their activities contribute to the health or nourishment of humans. Any preoccupation with threats to the survival of those workers is then framed as the preoccupation of the United Nations Environment Programme -- created by the UN Conference on the Human Environment (1972). Consistent with this pattern, the work performed by nonliving features of the environment -- wind, sea, and the like -- is the focus of other agencies of the United Nations, each with its particular human-oriented bias: World Meteorological Organization, International Maritime Organization. Again with little integrated consideration of the current relevance of such work to the fundamental strategic concern with "economic" transformation.

The discipline of economics, and its influence on legislation, has a problematic track record in recognizing unremunerated work, whether by women, bonded labour, slaves, prisoners, criminals, or volunteers. It is little wonder that it has failed to develop the skills applicable to the work by other species. How it is assumed that those skills will be adapted to the challenges of sustainability calls for clarification.

Although there appears to be no estimate of the work done by all animals on Earth, it is estimated that there are, for example, some 10 quintillion (10,000,000,000,000,000,000) individual insects alive at any one time (Numbers of Insects, Smithsonian, Information Sheet Number 18, 1996). Each insect can be recognized as engaged in work of some kind -- from a thermodynamic perspective.

As noted by the FAO:

  • More than 75 percent of the world’s food crops depend, to some extent, on pollination. Pollinators, like bees, butterflies, birds, moths, beetles, and even bats, help plants reproduce.
  • Western honeybees produce 1.6 million tonnes of honey per year... A single honeybee will typically visit around 7,000 flowers a day, and it takes four million flower visits to produce a kilogram of honey. Each individual bee is part of a team working tirelessly to support the growth and productivity of their beehive by gathering as much pollen as possible, while at the same time pollinating many plant species. (Bee-ing grateful to our pollinators)

Especially controversial is the "work", effectively done "involuntarily", by those animals used in experimental research and testing. It is estimated that more than 115 million animals -- including mice, rats, birds, fish, rabbits, guinea pigs, farm animals, dogs, cats, and non-human primates -- are used and/or killed in laboratory experiments each year around the world (Animal Use Statistics, Humane Society International). In 2020, the USA was the world’s largest such user of animals (20 million), followed by China (16 million) (Annual number of animals used in research and testing in selected countries worldwide as of 2020, Statista; 11 Shocking animal testing statistics that are hard to swallow, PETA). Less controversial is the work done by animals for entertainment in zoos and circuses, and as companion animals (The Economic Importance of Companion Animals, Federation of European Companion Animal Veterinary Associations, February 2007).

More elusive is any recognition of the work done in metabolic processes at the cellular level in animals of diffeent body mass (Fernando J. Ballesteros, et al, On the Thermodynamic Origin of Metabolic Scaling, Scientific Reports, 8, 2018, 1448; Douglas S. Glazier, Variable metabolic scaling breaks the law: from ‘Newtonian’ to ‘Darwinian’ approaches, Proceedings of the Royal Society, 289, 2022, 1985). A common measure is the basal metabolic rate, namely the rate of energy expenditure per unit time. Most of the energy is then consumed in maintaining fluid levels in tissues through osmoregulation, and only about one-tenth is consumed for mechanical work, such as digestion, heartbeat, and breathing. The metabolic changes to fats, carbohydrates, and proteins is energy, can be defined as the ability or capacity to do work. In the case of humans, when awake the brain consumes up to a fifth of the body's total energy needs.

Aside from the literature on ecological and environmental thermodynamics, references of relevance to work by animals could be clustered as follows. Unfortnately the focus is typically on the larger domesticated animals, whereas the major proportion of such work may well be performed by wild animals and smaller animals -- notably birds, bees, termites, and the like -- and even by bacteria (Kendra Coulter, How the hard work of wild animals benefits us too, The Conversation, 4 May 2018).

Animal work:

Ethical and political rights of animals:

Ecosystem services: Key concepts and applications (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Occasional Paper Series No.1, 2010)

Plants and animals "gainfully employed"? The questionable framing by economics of "animal labour" is curiously evident with respect to particular cases, notably "working animals" (Amy Tikkanen, Working Like a Dog: 7 Animals with Jobs, Britannica):

  • dogs are "employed" (and recognized as "working"), often with defined roles, by security services, customs authorities, and search/rescue services; the notion of employment extends to guide dogs, and companion animals
  • other than the continuing use of draft animals (ploughing, carriages, etc), certain animals have long been "employed" by the military (cavalry, war horses, etc), currently extending to the use of dolphins; carrier pigeons have been employed for messaging and espionage in wartime -- to the point of being recognized with medals and statues

The curious roadside labelling of some forests as "working forests", implies the recognition by economists that other forests are somehow "unemployed" (John Talberthm et al, Forests at Work: a new model for local land protection, World Resources Institute, 21 March 2011). Such a distinction is presumably extended to all wildlife "unemployed" by humans.

Work by artificial intelligence: Concerns have long been evoked with regard to the "rights" of robots. Given the amount of energy required to enable access to large language models like ChatGPT, it is curious that their much-appreciated "work" is not considered -- even though there is considerable concern that AI operation will be a threat to many forms of employment and livelihoods.

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